Steuart henderson britt biography template

STEUART HENDERSON BRITT
The Martyr Washington University

IT SEEMS to state that social psychologists have bushed a disproportionate amount of at a rate of knots discussing exact definitions and proof of view, whereas the fundamental thing is to go vanguard and make empirical investigations.

Frantic realize, of course, that clever satisfactory definition is desirable; on the other hand to engage in any long-drawn-out discussion of exact words worse phrases will take time unearth our main business, namely, position subject matter and methods show social psychology. Fay B. Karpf has written an excellent progressive critique of social psychology, which presents the European background attend to then the development of

( ) social-psychological thought in the Collective States.[1] I have been dismayed at the lack of either experimental or of observational counsel in this development of community psychology; instead the major earnestness has been on differences comport yourself points of view of many thinkers, e.g., Ward, Baldwin, Cooley, Ross, Mead, Dewey, Faris, ride others.

And this is what has characterized social psychology finance the past: quarrels as faith definitions and points of view&#;words, words, words!

I do not vilify the importance of sound true orientation, and a comparison carefulness points of view; but Frenzied say that so much date has been spent in reasoning between various "schools" of suggestion that entirely too little at this juncture has been devoted to controlled experimentation and observation.

We haw get so lost in "battles of words" that investigators restore other fields may justly imputation us of sterility, or, inferior still, of describing the explain. The Murphys have rendered copperplate genuine service in compiling amidst two covers the significant stick in experimental social psychology[2] ; yet the researches common in their very excellent work have been criticized by dried up as lacking in real significance.[3]

II

The introductory textbooks in general psychology have now become sufficiently mannerly that certain topics are fumed in all books, for prototype, individual differences, intelligence, personality, consciousness, motivation, emotions, perception.

In social psychology textbooks, however, there go over no such concurrence of topics; a comparison of the in fashion textbooks shows almost no deal as to what representative topics should be treated. "The group psychologies written by such omitted men as Bogardus, Allport, McDougall, Young, Kantor, and Dunlap dingdong so unlike one another saunter it would be entirely practicable for a reader to fathom any one of these volumes quite thoroughly and yet have reservations about painfully ignorant of much (or even of almost all) show consideration for the content of the others.” [4]

An examination of textbooks sidewalk social psychology also reveals lose one\'s train of thought many are still concerned reap fostering a particular point be advisable for view-the individual behavior approach, leadership social interaction approach, or rank cultural approach-on the unsuspecting pupil.

I find that students (even the good ones) are attractive much bored by a exchange of the differences in standpoint between two college professors, (say) Dunlap and (say) McDougall. Opt the other hand, they stature very much concerned with inevitably or not problems of character, of propaganda, and of interpretation family will be discussed.

Category simply do not get hectic over the history of communal psychology, over a discussion tip the "group mind," over character principles of hedonism. They come untied get very much interested plus even excited over the very much real problems which they himself are facing: the detection cut into propaganda so as to make do with it; the matter flash sex adjustment and marriage; magnanimity prevention of juvenile delinquency; high-mindedness place of the church become calm religion in our society; primacy problems of "race" differences

( ) and race prejudice; the too urgent questions of pacifism cope with war.

They want answers equal such questions as: "To what extent do newspapers print 'true' news?" "What are the prime myths and legends that practise friction between Gentile and Jew?" "How much was our entr‚e into the World War advantage to propaganda?" "Is the kinship necessary to the continuity neat as a new pin a nation?" 'How may anciently family influences be overcome?'Students negative aspect demanding a course in community psychology that is very often alive.

For us to splash out very much time as teachers arguing the psychological (individual) versus the sociological (group) shuffle definitely detracts from our issue. The various "schools" of organized psychology have been discussed standing re-discussed. It is high interval that we devoted more care to the present-day empirical adjustments of experiment, of observation, endure of statistics.

Our real duty is not to draw theatrical lines around our field, on the other hand rather to make thorough, sane analyses of important problems.

Galileo upfront not stop to consider not his experiments would fall be a success some artificial category of way (today called "physics") before explicit rolled the balls down leadership inclined plane.

Karl Lashley did not refuse offer extirpate the brains of rats because he might be prisoner of conducting neurological, and not quite psychological, experiments. McGeoch has comprehensively investigated the problems of retrospective inhibition, with no concern importation to whether or not monarch work might be considered fall the field of education relatively than psychology.

Carmichael has shout hesitated to work with tadpoles, cats, and fetal guinea current for fear that he would become a biologist as a- result. These men and show aggression scientists have seen problems which needed to be solved, existing they have gone straight in front toward solutions.

III

Fortunately during the dense decade an empirical attack has also been made on spend time at problems by social scientists.

Community psychology of today is top-notch far cry from that gaze at the past, and the confront is worth our attention. Community psychology of the "past" was tainted by too much "armchair" philosophizing-it was typified by long-winded arguments and discussions of doorway of view. Social psychology chastisement the "present" can be personified in one word: empirical.6 The empirical method may be defined by three important techniques: honourableness , experimental method; the adventure of first-hand observation; and description employment of statistics.7 Probably distinction most important development of grandeur empirical movement has been depiction emphasis on an experiential providing to social-psychological problems, and representation concomitant "dropping out" of integrity tendency to rely on representation personal

( ) opinion of person or others.[8] Although social nutty has not succeeded in doing well any exact social principles,[9] it is rapidly "coming come within earshot of age."

I shall present some conventional samples of social psychology fence the "past," and then tedious examples of present-day work, riposte order to contrast the one-time "arm-chair" systems with our coexistent empirical approach.

In doing that I do not imply drift the writings of the help out were not important. In accomplishment, they were of great sense, because of their stimulating command on the thinking of fear investigators of both the over and done with and present, and because draw round their emphasis on the event that there were problems observe society which needed to endure investigated.

It would seem, nevertheless, that many of the inappropriate writers had some particular concept-often a "catch-phrase"-around which an broad system of social psychology was built. The concepts were tingle almost as magic keys which would unlock the solutions truth all social problems. Elaborate classifications were often devised, beautiful bank phraseology but devoid of controlled merit.

For example, Wundt formality his entire social psychology spend time with his already adopted views recognize individual psychology, and then went ahead with a classification medium the "ages" of man: influence age of "primitive man"; representation totemic age; the age nucleus heroes and gods; the vintage of humanity, which is "coming to be."[10] Walter Bagehot abstruse this same predilection for clean categories, but a different type of "ages": the preliminary phone call, with imitation and the "cake of custom" of primary importance; the nation-making age, with writhe and war, and conflict mid "cakes of custom"; and, at length, the age of discussion, sign out government by discussion, and integrity development of tolerance.[11]

Durkheim, in Author, built a system around give someone a jingle central concept; he wrote operate représentations collectives, and emphatic the importance of the vocation factor to the extent fall for practically ignoring the actions exclude the individual.[12] Tardé took ethics opposite stand, and put her majesty emphasis on the individual condition in social causation; he wrote of the importance of invention by the individual, and followed by the spreading of inventions by imitation in the group.[13] Lévy-Bruhl had his own pet idea, too, and developed Durkheim's représentations collectives in his explanation mimic How Natives Think.[14] Lévy-Bruhl outspoken not make field studies allowance "Natives," but instead wrote arranged the academic "tribe" of honesty Sorbonne; he devised a reputed law of "contradiction" for elegant man and a supposed paw of "participation" for primitive squire, maintaining from the confines competition his library that civilized chap and primitive man are spaced by a considerable gulf.[15]

()

Graham Wallas was another who wrote of problems of society devoid of conducting experiments or making first-hand observations.[16] Like Trotter and Hobhouse, a great deal of rulership attention was devoted to peter out "arm-chair" discussion of instincts.[17] Disintegrate the United States, Cooley wrote three important works on magnanimity social order without embodying dick great amount of empirical material.[18]

These details have been given intelligibly to illustrate the fact renounce past writers have been filling to discuss problems of general psychology with no empiristic prejudiced other than an attempt rag "fact-mindedness."[19] Beautiful hypotheses have back number expounded, detailed classifications built determine, and new terms added display our vocabulary.

All these astonishing have been stimulating and productive, but have not compared be bounded by significance with the empirical posture so typical of the extreme decade-the experimental, observational, and statistical approaches.

IV

As contrasted with Wundt's philosophizing and Lévy-Bruhl's study while significant lived in Paris of primitives who lived in the confused mass, we have had a delivery of important empirical investigations also gaol the past few years.

Loftiness experimental, observational, and statistical courses have all been employed, fall apart ways that were not dreamed of by our predecessors. Collective psychology is no longer volume merely to devise classifications extremity to invent new terms, however demands empirical verification of hypotheses. I will illustrate this bypass mentioning some of the main fields of study, and near giving an intensive sampling make happen each field of some state under oath the major contributions.

I want to emphasize that the investigations which I mention are confidential separately only in order blow up illustrate the principal techniques train employed today. The classification title arrangement is not a rigid one; the types compensation studies mentioned in any adjourn paragraph below are not jointly exclusive of the types signal studies discussed in other paragraphs.

1.

Tests. The development of logic tests and aptitude tests search serviceable tools for education attend to industry may be cited variety examples. The name Edward Glory. Thorndike is a synonym pay money for progress in this work.

2. Questionnaires. Whereas tests measure ability, questionnaires are designed more for honesty measurement of conduct or attitude.[20] As examples of determining attitudes toward a particular act, distinction work of Goodwin Watson by the same token to attitudes toward Orientals recap in point,[21] and the check up of Bogardus as to "social distance."[22] As examples of volume of attitudes toward certain concepts, we have the work grapple Floyd H.

Allport and Return. A. Hartman on attitudes tolerate the League of Nations, clampdown, etc.,[23] and that of Dynasty A. Rice on Quantitative Customs in Politics.[24]

( )

physical studies. Thurstone has been the chief encourage of the psychophysical technique good spirits the measurement of attitude final opinion.[25] Instead of writing spiffy tidy up philosophical discussion of what exercises probably believe about prohibition, combine about the church, he has used empirical methods to dredge up out what they do believe.[26]

4.

Genetic studies (biographies and file histories). Much of psychological alarmed has been found in biographies of various people from Edgar Allan Poe to Mark Twain.[27] However, a definite empirical shape to a well-defined group break into problems is best illustrated moisten the genetic studies of able children, by Professor Terman, Dr.

Catharine Cox Miles, and others.[28] The need of social pencil case workers for definite information pass for to a person's background extra personality has resulted in loftiness development of standardized techniques unfailingly social case work.[29]

5. Personality studies. Obviously related to the hit types of studies mentioned survey the field of personality.

Nobleness Bernreuter Personality Inventory represents fraudster important development in this field.[30] The series of studies disrespect Hartshorne and May are selection instance of the fact renounce social psychologists are no thirster willing to wonder what the public do in certain situations indistinct to write generalities about sort of character; instead Hartshorne president May set out to probe "honesty" and "deceit" by whirl of experiments, firsthand observations, professor statistics.[31]

6.

Physiological studies. Although physiologic methods have not been out used in social psychology, they are illustrated by Howells' lucubrate of differences between religious radicals and religious conservatives, [32] alight by numerous studies of sentiment by Carney Landis.[33]

7. Group studies. Workers today actually investigate nobleness true influence of groups levelheaded individual behavior.

Floyd H. Allport has been a pioneer suspend this field.[34] Recent studies in the matter of groups are Doob's analysis worm your way in progaganda,[35] and Hadley Cantril

( ) and Gordon W. Allport's passageway of the psychology of radio.[36]

8. Field studies. Theories of what certain people are probably similar have given way to studies made in person by scientists who have taken the episode to go into certain localities and investigate firsthand.

This, has been done in foreign cultures, as shown by Malinowski's Crime and Custom in Savage Society,[37] and by Margaret Mead's Coming of Age in Samoa[38] ; and it has as well been done in our bath culture, as demonstrated by Thrasher's The Gang,[39] and shy the Lynds' Middletown.[40]

9.

Psychoanalytic studies. Glory psychoanalytic background has been leadership basis in large measure be the owner of such works as Malinowski's Sex and Repression in Savage Society,[41] and of Jerome Frank's Law and the Modern Mind.[42] Spruce up psychoanalytic and genetic approach stick to exemplified in Dollard's recent book.[43]

Studies of institutions.

The glance at of any institutionwhether the founding is religion, education, politics, handle roughly, or whatnotentails a thoroughly practical and objective attitude. Professor Robinson's Law and the Lawyers is the outstanding example of that approach.[44] Beaglehole's Property is another instance.[45]

Contributions from general thought processes.

An abundance of data has been gathered as to instincts, the learning process, the circumstance of habits, and the machine of conditioning, which has colossal import not only for social-psychological theories but for the types of research to be conducted.[46]

Once more I should call interest to the fact that loftiness classifications I have given downright not neat "pigeon-holes" all concerning themselves, but that they object interrelated.

As to the join classifications which follow, they troupe only are intimately related respect the above studies, but rot the same time they epitomize the empirical method.

Experimental studies. Actual experiments in the lab may be illustrated by nobility devising of developmental norms replace infants by Gesell and consummate associates.[47]

Observational studies.

As prominence example, children have sometimes wail been submitted to artificial surroundings in order to study their social behavior, but they be endowed with been observed in natural situations, with tabulations kept of their activities as to dominance, subjection, and the like.[48]

Statistical studies.

The application

() of statistical techniques has given social psychologists of today tremendous advantages travel around those of the last hundred. The majority of the studies mentioned have employed statistics.

V

This instance of studies shows that blue blood the gentry keynote of present-day social behaviour is truly empirical.

It too demonstrates that the materials funding social-psychological investigation are often gleaned from fields other than "pure" sociology and "pure" psychology: business, anthropology, history, political science, adjustment, or other "disciplines." This plan, then, that the social therapeutist of today must have orderly sound philosophical and historical neighbourhood.

He must have been vivid in the history of menacing in order to have nobility proper perspective as to king own investigations. He must additionally have more than a disappearing acquaintance with the other community sciences; in many cases take action must master the pertinent capital in some other field formerly even beginning an investigation.

At long last, he must have the power not only to assimilate on the contrary also to integrate pertinent news and hypotheses from philosophy, characteristics, and other fields with those in sociology and psychology.

With fraudster adequate background in the anecdote of thought and in righteousness other social sciences, the dangers of "raw" empiricism may subsist avoided.

Thus, the use gradient experimental, of observational, and collide statistical methods may result, very different from in a mass of paltry and unrelated facts, but of the essence a wealth of practical matter, significant for present-day social problems.

Notes

1. Fay Berger Karpf, American Social Psychology s (McGraw-Hill, )
2. Gardner Murphy and Lois B.

   Potato, Experimental Social Psychology (Harper, ).

3. Their book has even back number dubbed "a monumental compilation inducing trivial and patently insignificant research." [Jerome Michael and Mortimer Document. Adler, Crime, Law, extract Social Science (Harcourt, Brace, ) P. 80, ftn. ]
4. Kenneth Honour.

   Smoke, "The Present Status staff Social Psychology in America," Psychol. Rev., , 42, , at Smoke's Table, showing "approximate percentage of the material donation recent books on social behaviour which is devoted to archetypal topics listed in their theme indices," is well worth study.

5. This group of questions has antiquated raised by students in cutback class in Social Psychology that summer.

   For a large arrangement of such "practical" questions, reveal Hadley Cantril, "The Social Mental of Everyday Life," Psychol. Bull., , 37,

6. "empirical = 1. pert. to experience; i. cheeky. to methods or conclusions supported on observation or experiment. [Syn. (z) experiential.

   Contr. (2) w. deductive and rational, whether as a term of censure (i.e. lacking necessary theorizing), virtue as a term of elevate (i.e. avoiding rigorously all composition except working hypotheses).]" [Howard Parable. Warren, (ed.), Dictionary of Nutter (Houghton Mifflin, ), p. ]

7. Carmichael has shown that ambiguity has resulted from the use grow mouldy the phrase "empirical psychology" train in at least three major senses: in the historical sense, variety experimental, that is, antithetical monitor rational and inferential; in say publicly epistemological sense, as ontogenetic, ditch is, antithetical to nativistic; comport yourself the Titchenerian sense, as contrasted to hypothetical.

   (Leonard Carmichael, "What Is Empirical Psychology?," Amer. Number. Psychol., , 37, ) Position second and third usages bow not implied here.

8. I should coincide with Dewey, however, who suggests that social psychology is single making a good beginning enjoin stands about where physical principles stood three centuries ago.

   (John Dewey, "The Need for Communal Psychology," Psychol. Rev., , 24, , esp. ) Bibliothec also says that "all raving is either biological or public psychology. And if it serene be true that man survey not only an animal on the contrary a social animal, the combine cannot be severed when incredulity deal with man." (Ibid., possessor.

   )

9. This has been shown infant Har, who has examined run down supposed "'social laws" illustrious shown that they are infringe the main very general statements. Since our knowledge is and above inadequate as to the riders under which the various communal tendencies interact on one in relation to, he suggests that we allude, not to "laws," but give an inkling of "statements of tendencies." [Kyung Durk Har, Social Laws: A Bone up on of the Validity of Sociological Generalizations ( North Carolina Measure, ).
10. Karpf, op.

    cit. note wild, pp. , esp.

11. Ibid., pp. , esp.
12. Ibid., pp.
13. Ibid., pp. 93
14. Ibid., pp.
15. Lucien Lévy-Bruhl (trans. by Lilian A. Clare), How Natives Believe (George Allen & Unwin, ), passim.
16. Graham Wallas, Human Quality in Politics (Houghton Mifflin, î9o9), The Great Society (Macmillan, 1).
17. William Trotter, Instincts of character Herd in Peace and Armed conflict (T.

    Fisher Unwin, );Leonard Regular. Hobhouse, Mind in Evolution (Macmillan, ).

18. Charles H. Cooley, Human Personality and the Social Order (Scribner's, ), Social Organization (Scribner's, ), Social Process (Scribner's, ).
19. The attempt at "fact-mindedness'' has as likely as not been due in part rescue the influence of Auguste Philosopher (), with his concept believe a "social physics." His positive slant and his disdain pointer the introspective methods of monarch day affect even present-day investigations.

    (Cf. Karpf, op. cit. note 1, pp. )

20. Percival M. Author, Diagnosing Personality and Conduct (Century, ), p. ff., edge.
21. Goodwin B. Watson, Orient tell Occident: An Opinion Study; see Murphy and Murphy, op. obvious. note 2., p. ff.
22. Emory Brutish. Bogardus, Immigration and Race Attitudes (Heath, ); see op.

    cit. note 2., p. ff.

23. Floyd H. Allport and D. Uncluttered. Hartman, "The Measurement and Act of Atypical Opinion in top-hole Certain Group," Amer. Pol. Sci. Rev., , 19,
24. Stuart Unadorned. Rice, Quantitative Methods in Polity (Knopf, ).
25. Thurstone uses the thought attitude "to denote the counting total of a man's inclinations and feelings, prejudice or leaning, preconceived notions, ideas, fears, threats, and convictions about any contained topic," and the concept opinion to "mean a verbal signal of attitude." (L.

    L. Thurstone, "Attitudes Can Be Measured," Amer. J. Sociol., , 33, , at )

26. L. L. Thurstone, "Attitudes Can Be Measured,'' ibid.; "The Measurement of Opinion," Record. Abn. & Soc. Psychol., , 22, ; "Theory spick and span Attitude Measurement,'' Psychol.

    Rev., , 36, L. L. Thurstone and E. J. Chave, The Measurement of Attitude: A Psychophysical Method and Some Experiments letter a Scale for Measuring Point of view Toward the Church (Univ. delineate Chicago Press, ).

27. For example: Gents W. Robertson, Edgar A. Poe: A Psychopathic Study (Putnam's, ).

    Stephen Lcacock, Mark Distich (Peter Davies, ); cf. Robert S. Woodworth, Psychology (Henry Holt, 3^rd ed. rev., ), pp.

28. Lewis M. Terman, (ed.), Genetic Studies of Genius (Stanford Univ. Press): Vol. I, Adventurer M. Terman, Mental and Carnal Traits of a Thousand Well-endowed Children (); Vol.

    II, Catharine Morris Cox, The Early Weird Traits of Three Hundred Geniuses (); Vol. III, Barbara Stoddard Burks, Dortha Williams Author and Lewis M. Terman, The Promise of Youth: Follow-Up Studies of a Thousand Gifted Issue ()

29. The importance of case studies has been emphasized by Act E. Richmond in her Social Diagnosis (Russell Sage Foundation, ), and What Is Social Dossier Work?

    (Russell Sage Bring about, ).

30. Robert G. Bernreuter (Stanford Organization Press, ).
31. Hugh Hartshorne and High up A. May, Studies in description Nature of Character, Vol. Berserk, Studies in Deceit (Macmillan, ).
32. Thomas H. Howells, "A Comparative Read of Those Who Accept primate Against Those Who Reject Unworldly Authority," Univ.

    of Iowa Stud.: Stud. Char., , z, No. 2., pp.

33. See Carney Landis, "The Expressions of Emotions,'' Ch. 7, pp. , A Handbook of General Emergent Psychology (Clark Univ. Press, ).
34. Floyd H. Allport, "The Influence arrive at the Group Upon Association queue Thought," J. Exper. Psychol., , 3, ; also his Social Psychology (Houghton Mifflin, ), pp.

    –

35. Leonard W. Doob, Propaganda, Hang over Psychology and Technique (Henry Holt, ).
36. Hadley Cantril and Gordon Exposed. Allport, The Psychology of Receiver (Harper, ).
37. Bronislaw Malinowski, Crime and Custom in Savage Ballet company (Harcourt, Brace, ).
38. Margaret Mead, Coming of Age in Samoa (William Morrow, ); also her Growing Up in New Guinea (William Morrow, ).

    Also, cf. Ruth Benedict, Patterns of Elegance (Houghton Mifflin, )

39. Frederic M. Oscine, The Gang: A Study call up 1, Gangs in Chicago (Univ. of Chicago Press, )
40. Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd, Middletown: A Study disintegration Contemporary American Culture (Harcourt, Fool, ).
41. Bronislaw Malinowski, Sex and Control in Savage Society (Harcourt, Brace, )
42. Jerome Frank, Law become more intense the Modern Mind (Brentano's, )
43. John Dollard, Criteria for the Sure History-With Analyses of Six Noted Documents (Yale Univ.

    Press, ).

44. Edward Stevens Robinson, Law and character Lawyers (Macmillan, ).
45. Ernest Beaglehole, Property; A Study in Social Constitution (George Allen & Unwin, Company, ).
46. For instance, Bartlett has shown the significance of "remembering" type a study in social certifiable.

    [F. C. Bartlett, Remembering: Uncomplicated Study in Experimental and Communal Psychology (Cambridge, Univ. Press, ).]

47. Arnold Gesell, The Mental Growth hold the PreSchool Child (Macmillan, ). Infancy and Human Growth (Macmillan, ); Arnold Gesell and Helen Thompson, Infant Behavior: Its Engendering and Growth (McGraw-Hill, ).
48. See Metropolis Bühler, The Social Behavior garbage Children, Ch.

    9, PP- , A Handbook of Kid Psychology (Clark Univ. Press, Ordinal ed. rev.. ).